THE  NORMAL  SCHOOL 
QUARTERLY 

Series  15  October,  1916  No.  61 


Some  Aspects  of 
Commercial  Training 


By 

Arthur  R.  Williams 

and 

Verle  Sells 


Enterd  August,  1902,  at  Normal,  Illinois,  as  second-class  matter,  under 
Act  of  Congress  of  July  16,  1894 

PUBLISHT  BY  THE  ILLINOIS  STATE  NORMAL  UNIVERSITY, 
NORMAL,  ILLINOIS 

N.  B.     Persons  who  want  to  get  Ttie  Normal  School  Quarterly  regularly  will  please 
giv  prompt  notis  of  any  change  of  address 


Normal  School  Quarterly 


Publisht    by    the    Illinois    State    Normal    University, 

Normal,    Illinois 

Series  15                                                 OCTOBER,  1916 

No.  61 

SOME  ASPECTS  OF  COMMERCIAL  TRAINING 

By 

Arthur  R.  Williams  and  Verlb  Sells 

In  the  long  period  of  development  thru  which  the  sec- 
ondary school  system  of  this  country  has  past,  little  or  no 
thought  or  attention  was  given  to  establishing  theoretical 
bases  for  determining  the  educational  values  of  the  com- 
mercial branches.  Not  even  those  authorities  who  incline 
toward  the  sociological  viewpoint  in  mesuring  the  values 
and  organization  of  courses  for  secondary  schools  seem  to 
hav  forseen  what  has  come  to  pass  in  the  development  of 
commercial  education  in  our  secondary  schools  thru  the  past 
thirty  years.  Some  hav  adapted  their  original  plans  of  or- 
ganization so  that  those  studies  which  relate  directly  to  the 
business  side  of  life  ar  given  consideration.  For  example, 
the  technical  subjects  among  the  commercial  branches  ar 
groupt  by  DeGarmo  under  the  classification  of  economics. 
Butler  givs  them  a  place  as  "industrials." 

In  a  few  instances  some  of  the  business  subjects,  nota- 
bly bookkeeping,  began  to  appear  in  the  school  programs 
in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century.  They  wer  then 
but  adjuncts  to  the  curricula,  frills  added  sometimes  by  de- 
sign and  sometimes  apparently  by  chance.  Doutless  this 
beginning  was  due  to  the  economic  need  in  the  particular 
community  where  they  wer  taught. 

The  very  rapid  commercial  progress  of  our  country  in 
the  middle  years  of  the  last  century  demanded  workers  skild 
in  business  processes.  The  first  real  response  to  the  call 
came  from  the  private  business  college,  a  weakling  at  first 
but  destind  to  grow  into  a  very  strong  and  important  part 
of  our  educational  system.  Commercial  branches  did  not 
hav  the  heritage  of  tradition  behind  them,  nor  any  wel- 
standardized  methods  of  teaching.  The  teachers,  as  a  class, 
did  not  possess  general  educational  qualifications  equal  to 
their  contemporaries  in  other  teaching  groups.  However, 
this  short-coming  was  not  a  detriment  to  growth.    From  the 


2  The  Normal  School  Quarterly 

time  when  the  early  high  schools  of  Massachusetts  began 
the  teaching  of  bookkeeping,  and  thru  the  years  of  develop- 
ment enjoyd  by  the  private  business  schools,  the  commercial 
branches  increast  in  importance  until  now  they  bid  fair  to 
become  the  most  highly  organized  and  most  important 
group  of  studies  in  our  secondary  schools.  Evidence  of  this 
can  be  found  in  many  cities  where  complete  school  units  ar 
organized  as  commercial  high  schools. 

Following  hard  upon  the  successful  introduction  of 
manual  training  and  the  domestic  arts  movements  of  thirty 
years  ago  came  an  increast  interest  in  commercial  educa- 
tion among  public-school  men.  The  National  Education 
Association  in  1904  establisht  a  section  of  Business  Educa- 
tion by  admitting  to  its  councils  an  association  of  the  pri- 
vate business-college  managers  and  teachers,  an  association 
which  for  some  years  had  maintaind  a  successful  existence. 
In  the  passing  of  a  decade  the  complexion  and  personnel 
of  this  section  of  the  National  Education  Association  under- 
went a  distinct  change.  Public-school  men  interested  in 
the  teaching  of  the  commercial  branches  displaced  the  busi- 
ness-col] ege  men  who  gradually  withdrew  from  activ  par- 
ticipation in  the  doings  of  the  National  Education  Associ- 
ation largely  because  of  an  inherent  difference  in  standards 
of  teaching  ethics.  Out  of  this  defection  of  the  private- 
school  men  grew  the  present  National  Federation  of  Com- 
mercial Teachers. 

In  ten  years  the  public-school  movement  toward  bus- 
iness training  has  had  an  astonishing  growth.  It  became 
so  important  that  in  1904  the  National  Education  Associ- 
ation delegated  a  group  of  men  known  as  the  "Committee 
of  Nine"  to  go  thoroly  into  the  question  of  a  regularly  or- 
ganized commercial  course  of  four  years  for  high  schools. 
The  committee  presented  a  report  in  which  it  offerd  a  plan 
recommending  the  model  four-year  program  which  has 
been  the  basis  of  most  of  the  four-year  courses  now  in  force 
in  our  best  high  schools.  The  report  of  the  Committee  of 
Nine  servd  to  indicate,  even  to  a  more  markt  degree  than  had 
appeard  before,  the  cleavage  between  the  high  school  and 
the  higher  institutions  with  regard  to  the  wel-worn  question 
of  college  entrance  requirements;  a  topic  which  had  been 
the  shuttlecock  of  discussion  ever  since  the  epoch-making 
report  of  the  famous  "Committee  of  Ten"  in  1894. 

The  "Committee  of  Nine"  has  given  us  the  following 


Some  Aspects  of  Commercial  Training  3 

opinion :  "Under  the  authority  of  the  traditional  conception 
of  the  best  preparation  for  a  higher  institution,  many  of  our 
public  high  schools  ar  today  responsible  for  leading  tens 
of  thousands  of  boys  and  girls  away  from  the  pursuits  for 
which  they  ar  adapted  and  in  which  they  ar  needed  to  other 
pursuits  for  which  they  ar  not  adapted  and  in  which  they  ar 
not  needed.  A  chasm  is  created  between  the  producers  of 
material  welth  and  the  distributors  and  consumers  thereof. 
Many  students  do  not  go  to  college  because  they  took  those 
courses  which  wer  dictated  by  their  aptitudes  and  needs  in- 
sted  of  those  courses  prescribed  by  the  colleges."  More  than 
a  decade  has  past  since  these  questions  wer  raisd  by  the 
Committee  of  Nine,  yet  the  status  of  the  commercial 
branches  as  preparatory  studies  has  changed  but  slightly. 
Commercial  geografy  and  bookkeeping  wer  soon  acknowi- 
edgd  as  worthy  of  entrance  credit,  but  others,  such  as  short- 
hand, ar  only  now  coming  into  deserved  recognition. 

With  the  growth  of  commercial  departments  in  the 
high  schools  naturally  came  the  call  for  teachers.  Three 
or  four  of  the  normal  schools,  notably  those  at  Salem, 
Massachusetts,  Cedar  Falls,  Iowa,  and  Whitewater,  Wis- 
consin, took  up  seriously  the  special  training  of  teachers  to 
answer  the  call.  Two  years  ago  the  Illinois  State  Normal 
University  began  to  prepare  young  people  to  teach  the  com- 
mercial branches.  The  installation  of  this  department  was 
in  response  to  the  needs  of  Illinois,  and  the  frequent  calls 
from  superintendents  and  principals  in  Illinois,  and  else- 
where, for  more  and  better  qualified  teachers  in  this  special 
line.  The  progress  of  commercial  training  in  the  schools  of 
the  Middle  West  has  been  remarkable.  Illinois  has  been 
in  the  van  of  this  onward  movement.  Every  year  has  seen 
additions  to  the  number  of  schools  giving  this  work.  There 
has  been  a  famin  of  good  teachers  from  the  beginning. 

As  late  as  1902,  in  his  short  "History  of  Commerce," 
Webster  laments  our  backwardness  in  commercial  educa- 
tion. The  past  ten  years  has  seen  an  awakening.  High 
schools  everywhere,  even  in  the  rural  communities,  hav 
instald  commercial  courses.  The  universities  and  colleges 
hav  strengthend  their  work  by  introducing  courses  in  busi- 
ness administration.  The  educational  value  of  the  commer- 
cial branches  is  now  recognized,  tho  tardily,  by  practically 
all  of  the  higher  institutions  that  ar  known  as  progressiv 
and  alive  to  the  importance  of  commercial  education. 


83 

Teachers 

....  120 

111 

157 

146 

223 

173 

....281 

4  The  Normal  School  Quarterly 

Prior  to  1905  the  number  of  Illinois  high  schools  offer- 
ing four-year  courses  in  business  was  very  small,  less  than 
a  score.  It  is  doutful  if  any  other  special  type  of  education 
can  point  to  such  a  phenomenal  growth.  The  diagrams  be- 
low wil  giv  some  idea  of  the  onward  march  of  commercial 
work  in  the  Illinois  high  schools  during  the  past  five  years. 
Schools 

1912 

1913 

1914 

1915 

The  above  statistics  apply  to  schools  outside  of  Chicago. 
In  that  city  this  specialized  type  of  vocational  education 
has  grown  just  as  rapidly  as  it  has  in  the  down-state 
schools.  The  continuous  and  helthy  growth  of  an  educa- 
tional movement  is  the  strongest  evidence  of  its  value  and 
permanence. 

Two  or  three  years  ago  a  questionaire  sent  to  the  prin- 
cipals of  Illinois  high  schools  brought  out  a  surprising  fact. 
Only  one  of  the  principals  considerd  his  commercial 
teachers  of  high  grade.  Still,  it  was  not  so  surprising  on 
second  thought.  The  unusual  demand  for  commercial 
courses  placed  the  superintendents  and  principals  in  a 
quandary  as  to  where  they  would  get  teachers  to  fil  the  need. 
On  the  one  hand  wer  the  graduates  of  short  courses  in  "com- 
mercial colleges,"  with  some  technical  equipment  but  with- 
out a  broad  training  in  commercial  geografy,  commercial 
law,  or  the  professional  and  cultural  subjects  of  the  normal- 
school  or  college  curriculum.  On  the  other  hand  wer  nor- 
mal-school and  college  graduates  with  neither  business 
training  nor  practical  business  experience.  Graduates  of 
schools  of  commerce  wer  not  attracted  to  the  teaching  pro- 
fession since  they  could  command  a  higher  wage  in  the 
business  world. 

It  was  inevitable  that  a  large  proportion  of  such 
teachers  should  fail.  Ability  as  a  teacher  of  mathematics 
or  history  did  not  necessarily  "carry  over"  and  bring  suc- 
cess in  teaching  the  commercial  branches.  A  few  of  the 
more  adaptable  survived,  usually  because  they  had  had  some 
business  experience.  The  il-success  of  others  was  proof 
enuf  that  specialized  training  is  as  necessary  in  the  commer- 
cial as  it  is  in  any  other  line  of  teaching.  Investigation  of 
the  movement  of  commercial  teachers  and  their  average 


Some  Aspects  of  Commercial  Training  5 

tenure  of  place  reveals  another  proof  of  our  statement,  and 
shows  that  the  time  has  gone  by  when  the  mere  tinker  can 
find  a  place  in  teaching  high-school  subjects. 

The  teacher  must  be  a  specialist.  He  cannot  hope  for 
success  or  a  continuance  in  the  profession  of  teaching  high- 
school  specialties  unless  he  has  a  broad  general  education 
as  wel  as  specialized  training  in  his  chosen  line  of  work. 
The  commercial  teacher  must  be  able  to  take  his  place  pro- 
fessionally on  a  par  with  his  fellow  workers,  he  must  merit 
respect  for  his  general  scholarly  attainments  as  wel  as  be 
thoroly  conversant  with  general  business  methods  as  they 
ar  in  use  in  the  present-day  business  world. 

Those  institutions  of  higher  lerning  which  hav  in  re- 
cent years  establisht  schools  of  commerce  hav  in  view  the 
preparation  of  young  men  for  the  business  world  itself.  It 
is  only  incidentally  that  the  graduate  of  a  university  school 
of  commerce  finds  his  way  into  teaching.  He  is  not  usually 
satisfied  with  the  salary  he  must  take  as  an  inexperienst 
teacher.  It  has  remaind  for  the  normal  schools  to  take  up 
the  task  of  preparing  teachers  of  business  for  the  high 
schools. 

To  giv  the  professional  equipment  the  training  course 
in  the  normal  schools  must  of  necessity  include  such  courses 
in  education  as  ar  indicated  as  most  useful  for  the  pro- 
spectiv  high-school  teacher.  Among  them  would  be  teach- 
ing process,  general  method,  educational  psychology,  high- 
school  problems,  principles  of  teaching  commercial 
branches,  or  similar  courses.  These,  coupled  with  an  ade- 
quate training  in  the  technical  subjects  of  business,  make  a 
very  full  quota  of  work  for  two  years,  the  time  now  usually 
alloted  in  the  normal  schools.  Indeed,  in  the  near  future 
the  normal  schools  wil  find  this  commercial  training  so 
expanding  that  four  years  wil  be  needed  to  cover  the 
volume  of  work  the  commercial  teacher  must  prepare  him- 
self in  to  meet  the  rapid  development  of  commercial  educa- 
tion. 

ACCOUNTING 

"The  science  of  accounts  and  the  art  of  keeping  them" 
is  an  old  and  familiar  definition  of  bookkeeping  from  the 
days  when  the  ancient  Chaldean  reckond  his  score  on 
plates  of  mud,  to  the  present  day  accountant,  who,  with  pen 
on  his  ear  revels  in  his  filing  systems,  his  loose-leaf  devises, 


6  The  Normal  School  Quarterly 

his  income  and  expense  statements,  and  his  balance  sheets. 
And  yet  how  very  modern  it  seems  to  be  as  a  distinct  element 
in  education.  Our  educational  theorists  ar  wont  to  neglect 
it  entirely  in  the  organization  of  material  of  education,  or  at 
least  ar  loath  to  giv  it  a  place  in  their  scheme  of  education. 
The  teaching  of  bookkeeping  has  not  come  to  be  of  its 
present  importance  nor  won  its  place  as  indispensable  in 
school  curricula  because  of  the  recommendations  of  such 
comprehensiv  educational  bodies  as  the  Committee  of  Ten. 
Its  presence  in  the  schedules  of  both  public  and  private 
schools  is  the  answer  to  a  distinct  civic  need  not  in  any 
way  connected  with  what  the  colleges  wer  demanding  as 
preparation  to  enter  their  doors. 

Stil  it  is  so  important  a  factor  in  the  progress  of  educa- 
tion in  our  country  and  it  so  wel  fils  a  particular  economic 
need  that  no  stretch  of  imagination  is  requird  to  reconcile 
the  value  of  bookkeeping  to  any  of  the  ideals  of  the  theorist. 
Applying  the  definition  given  above,  it  wil  be  seen  how  wel 
it  fits  with  what  Jevon  says,  "a  science  teaches  us  to  know 
and  an  art  teaches  us  to  do."  If  we  accept  the  statement 
of  Home  that  the  environment  of  the  child  is  what  his  race 
has  made  before  him,  then  teaching  him  the  scientific  keep- 
ing of  records  is  in  very  fact  adjusting  him  to  the  posses- 
sions of  his  race.  What  could  better  fulfil  the  three  spiritual 
ideals  of  truth,  beauty,  and  goodness  than  the  three  watch- 
words of  bookkeeping — accuracy,  neatness,  and  dispatch. 

While  the  fundamental  laws  upon  which  accountancy 
is  based  hav  not  changed,  their  application  and  practical 
use  hav  alterd  much  to  meet  the  constant  changes  in  the 
processes  of  modern  business.  There  has  been  much  to 
criticize  adversely  in  the  textbooks  that  hav  been  offerd 
the  schools,  not  with  regard  to  the  pedagogical  principles 
involvd  nor  the  arrangement  of  subject-matter  so  much 
as  the  antiquated  methods  of  accounting  practis  that  the 
books  set  forth,  and  in  many,  a  disregard  of  statute  law  and 
its  control  of  accounting  processes.  It  is  encouraging  to 
note  that  a  few  publishers  now  offer  the  teacher  texts 
upon  which  he  may  rely  as  reflecting  up-to-date  methods 
of  accountancy  and  due  observance  of  legal  requirements. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  ar  some  publications  stil  in  wide 
use  which  far  from  satisfy  present  day  standards  in 
accountancy  and  business  law.  It  cannot  be  douted  that 
these  faulty  textbooks  ar  in  a  large  mesure  to  be  blamed 


Some  Aspects  of  Commercial  Training  7 

for  weak  results  in  high-school  classes  and  the  meager 
knowledge  of  accountancy  the  majority  of  teachers  possess. 
Too  many  teachers  hav  been  satisfied  to  let  the  text 
they  teach  bookkeeping  from  be  the  mesure  of  their  own 
information  on  the  subject.  To  make  the  99%  success  the 
business  world  demands  the  teacher  must  hav  a  much 
broader  training  in  accounting  than  he  has  been  content 
with  heretofore.  The  rapid  development  of  commercial  edu- 
cation makes  imperativ  an  equipment  which  must  include 
familiarity  with  a  number  of  the  best  elementary  systems 
and  textbooks  as  wel  as  an  acquaintance  with  the  work  of 
such  authorities  as  Dickinson,  Bentley,  Esquerre,  Hatfield, 
Montgomery,  and  others.  To  this  fund  of  information 
should  be  added  a  practical  skill  in  the  more  highly  developt 
phases  of  accountancy.  To  these  qualifications  might  wel 
be  added  a  season  of  actual  experience  in  a  modern  business 
offis.  The  academic  attitude  should  be  levend  by  a  touch  of 
the  verisimilitude  of  business. 

A  Suggested  Plan  of  a  Recitation  in  Accounting 

Aim  of  the  recitation 

To  teach  the  analysis  of  general  expense  account. 

Unit  of  instruction 

Topic  material  to  be  designated  in  textbook  used;  e.  g.,  Rowe, 
"Bookkeeping  and  Accountancy,"  pp.  147-149  inclusiv,  and  Budget 
125,  p.  49. 

Organization 

Analysis  sheets  in  general 

Many  uses  and  forms. 
The  ruled  form  as  adapted  to  the  work  in  hand. 

Owner's  viewpoint. 

Accountant's  viewpoint. 

Sources  of  data. 

Pupil's  problem 

(a)  To  develop  an  analysis  sheet  for  expense  from  the  busi- 
ness practis  set  for  the  fiscal  period. 

(b)  To  gain  ability  to  make  such  reports  for  various  types  of 
expense  and  income  accounts. 

Assignment 

Study  carefully  the  textbook  and  budget  discussions  and  illus- 
trations of  analysis  sheets. 

Find  sources  of  data  to  be  incorporated  in  the  analysis. 


8  The  Normal  School  Quarterly 

Use  ruled  form  in  listing  the  data  obtaind. 

List  data  in  detail  as  shown  in  illustration. 
Preparation 

A  discussion  and  quiz  on  the  topic  of  expense  and  income  ac- 
counts.   Oral  practis  in  identifying  different  expense  detail. 

Presentation 

Presentation  of  the  completed  analysis  sheet.  Questions  on 
sources  and  arrangement  of  detail.  Verification  of  results.  New 
problem  presented  orally  to  class  to  secure  rapidity  and  accuracy 
thru  competition. 

COMMERCIAL  LAW 

There  is  an  old  saying  that  "ignorance  of  the  law 
excuses  no  man."  Thru  lack  of  proper  information  with 
regard  to  rights  and  responsibilities,  thousands  of  honest 
and  otherwise  wel-traind  men  hav  faild  in  business.  There 
is  another  old  saying  that  "every  man  has  his  day  in  court." 
Doutless  this  day  in  court  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten  was  not 
due  to  unwillingness  or  ignorance  on  the  part  of  the  man 
thus  entangled  to  fulfil  his  legal  duties,  but  rather  because 
he  did  not  know  the  legal  significance  of  his  act.  It  is  no 
wonder,  then,  that  in  the  development  of  commercial  educa- 
tion in  our  high  schools  one  of  the  most  prominent  places 
has  been  given  to  a  course  where  the  laws  in  most  common 
use  relating  to  business  transactions  and  the  men  who  make 
them  should  be  included.  It  is  not  the  purpose  of  the  teacher 
of  such  a  course  to  make  lawyers  of  his  pupils,  tho  no 
dout  some  naturally  adapted  to  it  hav  been  influenst  by  a 
study  of  commercial  law  to  take  up  the  profession  of  law. 
The  high-school  course  and  the  normal-school  course  in 
business  law  ar  intended  to  giv  enuf  of  the  common  law 
and  the  statutes  as  applied  to  business  so  that  the  one  who 
takes  the  work  and  understands  it  wel  wil  be  able  to  avoid 
unnecessary  entanglements  of  litigation.  No  longer  wil 
it  be  possible  for  anyone  to  say  of  him  that  he  got  into 
trouble  because  he  did  not  know  his  rights  and  respon- 
sibilities. As  a  matter  of  fact,  if  the  student  lerns  nothing 
else  but  the  significance  of  a  contract,  its  solemnity  and 
essential  elements,  commercial  law  would  need  no  further 
thing  to  defend  its  position  of  importance  in  the  high-school 
curriculum. 

Naturally  a  normal-school  course  in  commercial  law 
should  cover  the  subject  much  more  broadly,  in  greater  de- 


Some  Aspects  of  Commercial  Training  9 

tail,  and  should  approach  its  topics  with  greater  technicality 
in  expression  than  would  obtain  in  high-school  classes.  In 
addition  there  should  be  due  consideration  of  ways  and 
means  of  presenting  the  subject  to  high-school  classes.  The 
principles  laid  down  in  courses  in  teaching  process  and 
general  method  should  come  into  use  in  teaching  the  course. 
The  field  of  commercial  law  in  the  normal-school  course 
should  cover  the  topics  of  contracts  in  general  and  special 
applications  in  the  cases  of  sales  of  goods,  negotiable  papers, 
credits  and  loans,  money  and  banking,  bailments,  partner- 
ship and  corporation  finance,  real  and  personal  property, 
and  enuf  of  the  general  subject  of  personal  relations  to  cover 
the  laws  of  master  and  servant.  In  addition  to  these  there 
should  also  be  some  instruction  in  the  individual's  responsi- 
bility to  the  state,  mainly  a  survey  of  court  procedure,  and 
of  criminal  laws  as  they  touch  commercial  transactions  and 
accountancy.  As  in  accounting,  the  teacher  should  be  wel 
acquainted  with  the  best  available  textbooks.  He  should 
also  be  able  to  read  intelligently  some  of  the  more  technical 
works  on  such  legal  specialties  as  touch  business  law,  i.  e., 
the  best  authorities  on  contracts,  sales,  agency,  partnership, 
bils  and  notes,  corporations,  and  property,  and  make  intelli- 
gent use  of  these  authorities  in  the  conduct  of  his  class. 

A  Suggested  Plan  of  a  Recitation 
Aim  of  recitation 

To  teach  the  laws  pertaining  to  the  rights  of  an  unpaid  seller 
of  goods. 
Unit  of  instruction 

Material  to  be  designated  in  the  textbook  used;  e.  g., 
Huffcut,       pp.  87-91, 
Gano,  pp.  108-111, 

Bush,  pp.  207,  212,  218-223, 

Whigam,     pp.  234-236, 

The  Uniform  Sales  Act  as  adopted  by  many  states. 

Cases :  Arnold  vs.  Delano,  Mass.  Reports,  Vol.  4. 
(Vender's  Lien). 
Tufts  vs.  Sylvester,  Am.  State  Reports,  Vol.  1. 
(Stoppage  in  Transitu). 
Organization 

1.     The  rights  of  the  seller  against  the  goods  themselvs: 

(a)  Seller's  lien  (introduce  above  cited  case). 

(b)  Stoppage    in    transitu    (introduce    above    cited 
case). 


10  The  Normal  School  Quarterly 

(c)    Resale  as  agent  of  the  buyer. 

2.  Rescission  of  sale  and  resumption  of  title. 

3.  Rights  to  action  for  breach  of  contract : 

(a)  Action  for  damages. 

(b)  Action  for  price. 

Pupils'  problem  , 

To  gain  a  working  knowledge  of  the  remedies  a  merchant  may 
secure  thru  the  law,  or  means  by  which  he  may  protect  himself. 

Assignment 

Review  parties  to  a  sale  and  warranties  in  a  sale. 

Study  with  care  the  text  material,  including  the  cases  accom- 
panying the  textbook.    Read  at  least  one  reference. 

Make  notes  on  cases  in  the  textbook. 

Preparation 

Recitation  opend  with  a  short  review  of  parties  and  agreement 
in  the  sale  of  goods. 

Presentation 

Questions  on  subject-matter  of  the  textbook.  Presentation  of 
cases  mentiond  in  organization.    Introduction  of  references. 

SHORTHAND 

Herbert  Spencer's  idea  that  the  first  object  of  an  educa- 
tion is  to  enable  a  man  to  make  a  living  is  echoed  all  thru 
this  commercial  age  in  which  we  liv.  Shorthand  is  a  com- 
mercial subject  and  since  the  first  organized  system  was 
publisht,  early  in  the  sixteenth  century,  it  has  been  regarded 
by  the  majority  of  people  merely  from  this  point  of  view- 
its  erning  power.  Shorthand  has  revolutionized  the  modern 
business  world,  it  is  true,  and  perhaps  it  is  for  this  reason 
that  the  dollars-and-cents  side  of  it  has  been  overemfasized. 
Its  value  to  the  business  world  generally,  rather  than  to  the 
individual  student,  has  been  thought  of.  Aside  from  its 
commercial  value,  it  has  first  a  mental-efficiency  value,  and 
secondly  a  cultural  value. 

The  shorthand  student  recievs  an  abundance  of  train- 
ing for  mental  efficiency.  By  insisting  on  accuracy  of  out- 
line the  power  to  think  exactly,  execute  promptly,  and  make 
quick  decisions  is  cultivated.  The  eye,  ear,  and  hand  ar 
traind  to  coordinate  with  the  brain  both  in  rapidity  and 
accuracy.  The  memory  is  developt  by  committing  word- 
signs  and  contractions  and  by  the  necessity  of  retaining  in 
mind  many  words  dictated  while  writing  others.     Short- 


Some  Aspects  of  Commercial  Training  11 

hand  requires  a  constant  attention  and  an  alertness  of  mind 
seldom  to  be  found  in  other  subjects. 

The  cultural  value  consists  of  training  in  the  discrim- 
ination of  fonetic  sounds,  increasing  the  vocabulary,  famil- 
iarity with  the  principles  of  English  grammar  and 
punctuation,  and  a  broadening  of  the  student's  general 
knowledge. 

When  the  average  high-school  student  takes  up  the 
study  of  shorthand  he  has  almost  no  knowledge  of  the  pri- 
mary vowel  sounds.  He  has  been  accustomd  to  think  of 
words  in  their  longhand  form  with  silent  letters.  His  spell- 
ing is  correct  or  incorrect  as  he  remembers  the  "look"  of  the 
word.  Dril  in  sound  analysis  of  words  should  therefore 
be  given  to  teach  him  to  discriminate  between  the  vowels 
common  to  shorthand,  to  note  absence  in  the  pronunciation 
of  silent  letters  and  to  determin  the  accent  of  words.  Many 
pupils  ar  without  any*  conception  of  accent.  This  dril  is 
necessary  to  produce  an  analytic  and  dynamic  mind,  with- 
out which  a  student  may  write  practist  matter  at  a  high  rate 
of  speed  but  wil  not  be  able  to  take  dictation  containing  new 
words  and  phrases.  His  memory  assists  him  somewhat,  but 
is  of  little  avail  if  not  supplemented  with  the  proper  kind  of 
dril  in  fonetics. 

New  words  ar  constantly  occurring — many  of  them  un- 
familiar to  the  student.  He  should  be  requird  to  look  these 
words  up  in  the  dictionary  and  as  he  writes  the  word  over 
and  over  again  in  his  shorthand  practis  work  and  repeats  it 
to  himself  each  time,  he  wil  increase  his  vocabulary. 

In  transcribing  his  shorthand  notes  into  printed  lan- 
guage the  student  must  be  able  to  apply  the  ordinary  prin- 
ciples of  English  grammar.  He  must  understand  the  rela- 
tion of  the  different  parts  of  a  sentence  to  each  other  and  be 
able  to  punctuate.  He  must  also  be  able  to  spel  correctly  and 
know  the  use  of  synonyms  and  homonyms. 

The  choice  of  material  to  be  dictated  should  be  very 
carefully  made.  Wel-organized  and  wel-constructed  letters 
of  all  types  should  be  used.  Good  sermons,  good  addresses, 
and  court  proceedings  of  all  kinds  may  be  dictated.  In 
choosing  articles  the  dictator  should  use  discretion  and 
should  select  excerpts  from  the  best  standard  authors — selec- 
tions which  wil  broaden  the  student's  horizon,  increase  hig 


12  The  Normal  School  Quarterly 

general  knowledge,  and  familiarize  him  with  the  best  usages 
in  English  literature. 

A  Suggested  Two=year  Course  in  Gregg  Shorthand 

First  Year. — Textbooks:  Gregg  Shorthand  Manual; 
Practical  Drils  in  Shorthand  Penmanship;  Progressiv  Ex- 
ercises ;  Gregg  Speed  Practis ;  The  Gregg  Writer. 

The  work  should  begin  with  practis  of  vowel  sounds 
and  ordinary  elementary  penmanship  drils.  As  each  lesson 
of  the  manual  is  presented  additional  work  in  the  execution 
of  characters  in  the  lesson  should  be  given.  Board  work  is 
advizable.  The  progressiv  exercizes  follow  along  with  the 
manual  work  and  the  "Lerners'  Plates"  in  the  "Gregg 
Writer"  afford  excellent  material  for  sight  reading  and  addi- 
tional practis.  Supplementary  dictation  may  be  given  from 
the  Beginner's  Letter  Drils. 

After  the  manual  has  been  thoroly  masterd  speed  work 
may  be  given.  The  letters  of  the  "Principle  Series"  in  the 
"Gregg  Speed  Practis"  offer  excellent  material  for  review 
of  the  principles  and  the  "Phrase  Letters"  giv  the  student 
material  for  reading  and  writing  practis. 

After  one  year  the  student  should  be  able  to  take  dicta- 
tion on  average  business-matter  at  75  words  a  minute  for  a 
period  of  five  minutes  and  transcribe  with  95%  accuracy. 

Second  Year. — Textbooks :  Gregg  Speed  Practis ;  The 
Gregg  Writer;  Supplementary  dictation  manuals  such  as 
Shorthand  Dictation  Exercises,  by  E.  H.  Eldridge;  Expert 
Speed  Practis;  Actual  Business  Dictator;  The  Universal  Dic- 
tation Course;  The  Accumulativ  Speller. 

This  year's  work  should  begin  with  a  thoro  review  of 
the  manual  together  with  the  "Principle  Series"  in  the 
Gregg  Speed  Practis.  At  least  eight  weeks  should  be  devoted 
to  this  review.  An  abundance  of  sight  reading  of  the  Gregg 
Writer  plates,  and  drils  in  execution  of  characters  should 
be  given. 

The  Gregg  Speed  Practis  should  be  completed  and 
supplemented  by  dictation  of  unpractist  matter  covering  the 
commonest  forms  of  the  retail  and  wholesale  business, 
manufacturing,  engineering,  banking,  railroads,  and  the 
professions.  Dictation  of  legal  forms  and  specifications 
should  be  given.  Speeches,  sermons,  and  testimony  of  both 
civil  and  criminal  trials  should  be  reported.    When  possible 


Some  Aspects  of  Commercial  Training  13 

it  is  an  excellent  plan  for  students  to  attend  actual  court  pro- 
cedings  and  try  the  reporting  practis  to  be  obtaind  there. 

At  the  end  of  the  second  year  the  average  pupil  should 
be  qualified  to  "take"  at  speed  of  120  words  per  minute  on 
common  business  letters  and  90  to  100  words  per  minute  on 
solid  matter  and  transcribe  with  95%  accuracy. 

A  Suggested  Plan  of  Recitation 

Aim  of  lesson;  To  teach — 

1.  Sounds  of  the  downward  characters  in  paragraf  13. 

2.  How  to  join  fr  and  fl  without  forming  an  angle. 

3.  How  to  join  circle  vowels  to  these  consonants. 

4.  The  position  of  words  in  relation  to  line  of  writing. 

Unit  of  instruction 

Gregg  Shorthand  Manual  (1916  edition)  pp.  8-11. 

Practical.  Drils  in  Shorthand  Penmanship,  by  G.  S.  McClure, 
Plates  8,  9,  10,  and  11. 
Organization  of  subject  matter 

1.  Names  of  the  consonants  in  paragraf  13. 

2.  Execution  of  these  characters. 

3.  The  position  of  words  on  line  of  writing. 

4.  Application  of  rules  for  joining  circles  to  these  consonants. 
Pupils'  Problem 

1.  To  become  familiar  with  the  new  consonants  in  paragraf 

13. 

2.  To  write  fr  and  fl  without  an  angle. 

3.  To  place  outlines  correctly  on  the  line  of  writing. 

4.  To  join  circles  to  these  consonants  correctly. 

5.  To  execute  outlines  in  general  exercizes  dexterously. 
Assignment 

Review  vowels  and  consonants  of  Lesson  I. 

Review  rules  for  joining  circles  to  consonants  in  Lesson  I. 

Write  two  pages  of  practis  work  on  plates  8,  9,  10,  and  11  of 

McGlure's  Practical  Drils  in  Shorthand  Penmanship. 
Write  four  pages  of  practis  work  on  words  on  pages  8-10  of 

the  Gregg  Shorthand  Manual. 
Read  notes  back  at  least  once. 
Preparation 

Review  vowels  and  consonants  of  Lesson  I. 

Review  rules  for  joining  circles  to  consonants  in  Lesson  I,  and 

apply  these  rules  to  consonants  in  Lesson  II. 
Presentation 

Oral  dril  on  vowels  and  consonants  of  Lessons  I  and  II. 


14  The  Normal  School  Quarterly 

Board  work 

1.  Dril  in  execution  of  the  new  characters  and  joining 
them  to  other  characters. 

2.  Dictation  of  words  on  pages  8-10. 

3.  Read  notes  back. 

TYPEWRITING 

Speed  in  typewriting  has  now  reacht  a  point  which  a 
few  years  ago  was  considerd  beyond  the  ability  of  any  hu- 
man being,  and  what  was  once  thought  hypernormal  in 
operating  attainment  is  now  normal. 

Many  people  hav  entertaind  the  erroneous  idea  that 
typewriting  is  simply  mechanical — that  anyone  can  sit 
down  and  write  on  a  typewriter  just  as  anyone  can  lern  to 
operate  a  sewing  machine  or  a  similar  devise.  The  opera- 
tion of  a  sewing  machine  requires  practically  only  the  co- 
ordination of  the  larger  muscles,  while  in  typewriting  the 
finer  adjustments  ar  necessary.  It  takes  a  longer  time  to 
make  the  movements  of  the  smaller  muscles  automatic  than 
it  does  those  of  the  larger  ones.  It  is  true,  indeed  it  is  nec- 
essary, that  the  movements  in  typewriting  become  mechani- 
cal ;  but  as  soon  as  the  mind  ceases  to  work  ahed  the  fingers 
can  no  longer  move  with  accuracy  and  precision.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  person  who  runs  a  sewing  machine  may  be 
merely  an  automaton,  for  his  muscles  once  adapted  to  the 
movements  of  the  machine  his  mind  may  be  far  from  the 
task  in  hand. 

Supervision  in  typewriting  is  one  of  the  first  essentials 
in  securing  the  right  kind  of  technique.  It  is  the  exceptional 
case  where  a  textbook,  a  typewriter,  and  a  student  without 
supervision  produce  a  touch-typist.  Without  supervision 
the  theory  student  wil  soon  acquire  bad  habits,  such  as 
faulty  fingering,  incorrect  position  of  the  hands  and  poor 
posture,  which  later  wil  require  much  time  to  correct. 

The  touch  of  the  beginning  student  should  be  carefully 
watcht — it  should  be  made  even  and  rhythmic.  The  Vic- 
trola  can  be  used  here  to  great  advantage.  Music  relievs  the 
monotony  and  tends  to  increas  speed  as  wel  as  firmness  and 
smoothness  of  touch.  With  the  beginning  student  it  is  es- 
pecially advantageous,  as  it  relievs  the  nervous  tension  un- 
der which  the  beginner  is  inclined  to  work  and  adds  to  the 
attractivness  of  the  subject.  A  ten-minute  dril  with  the  Vic- 
trola  at  the  beginning  of  each  hour  wil  hav  a  decided  effect 


Some  Aspects  of  Commercial  Training  15 

for  good  on  the  work  for  the  remainder  of  the  hour.  The 
Victrola  can  be  made  to  increas  its  speed  gradually,  and  un- 
consciously the  student  wil  increas  his  speed  in  order  to 
keep  in  time  with  the  music. 

Stretching  exercizes  of  various  kinds  ar  of  great  value 
to  the  typist.  They  giv  strength  and  elasticity  to  the  muscles 
of  the  hand  and  wrist  and  also  promote  a  free  blood  circula- 
tion and  prevent  "writers'  cramp." 

The  speed  element  should  not  be  introduced  into  the 
student's  mind  until  he  has  proven  himself  an  accurate  oper- 
ator at  a  slow  rate.  If  the  student  acquires  accuracy,  speed 
wil  naturally  follow  with  practis. 

Artistic  arrangement  of  work  and  gaining  of  speed 
without  sacrificing  the  essential  accuracy  ar  two  of  the 
problems  confronting  the  advanst  student.  The  same  piece 
of  work  may  be  arranged  in  many  different  ways.  Allow 
the  student  to  try  several  ways  and  then  judge  which  is  the 
most  pleasing  to  the  eye.  It  wil  be  several  months  before  he 
can  judge  at  sight  just  how  to  place  an  article  on  the  page 
to  secure  the  best  effect.  In  the  advancement  of  operating 
skil  artistry  plays  no  insignificant  part. 

It  is  advisable  to  combine  a  course  in  offis  training  with 
advanst  work  in  typewriting.  This  wil  giv  the  student  an 
insight  into  the  work  done  in  a  large  offis.  The  handling 
and  filing  of  correspondence,  the  division  of  work  among 
several  stenographers  and  the  management  of  an  offis, 
would  be  included  in  the  work.  Visits  to  the  larger  offises  in 
the  vicinity  would  enable  the  student  to  see  these  things  in 
actual  practis.  Properly  supervized  field  trips  ar  recognized 
to  be  of  pedagogical  value. 

The  direct  values  of  typewriting  to  the  individual  stu- 
dent ar  very  numerous;  some  of  these  ar  concentration, 
alertness,  quickness  of  mind,  accuracy,  neatness,  and 
keeness  of  perception.  Beside  these  the  student  acquires  di- 
rectly punctuation,  spelling,  grammar  and  composition  thru 
formal  training. 

Training  should  include  proficiency  in  the  touch 
method  of  operation.  As  a  basis  for  this  work  any  standard 
manual,  such  as  Fritz-Eldridge,  Twentieth  Century,  Ra- 
tional, and  others  may  be  used.  Copy  from  plain  copy,  copy 
from  manuscript,  use  of  the  tabulator,  and  copy  of  legal 
forms  wil  be  incorporated  in  this  elementary  work.  The 
care  and  use  of  the  typewriter  should  also  be  included. 


16  The  Normal  School  Quarterly 

Some  suggestions  for  additional  work:  (1)  Making  of 
stencils  and  use  of  the  mimeograf;  (2)  Blindfold  drils;  (3) 
Speed  tests;  (4)  Carbon  copies;  (5)  Direct  dictation;  (6) 
Transcription  of  shorthand  notes. 

Suggested  Plan  for  One  Day's  Work 

Teacher's  purpose 

To  teach  student  to  make  capital  letters  by  use  of  the  shift 
key. 
Unit  of  instruction 

The  use  of  the  fifth  finger  (foren  fingering)  and  the  shift  key. 
Organization 

Review  of  key  board. 

Fritz-Eldridge's  Expert  Typewriting,  Lesson  10;  or  the  lesson 
on  the  use  of  the  shift  key  in  any  standard  typewriting 
manual. 
Pupil's  Problems 

1.  To  keep  position  of  keys  in  mind. 

2.  To  operate  shift  key  with  little  finger  before  desired  key 

is  struck,  and  releas  it  after  the  key  is  struck. 

3.  To  bear  in  mind  that  when  the  letter  to  be  capitalized  is  a 

right-hand  letter,  to  use  the  left  shift  key,   and  vice 
versa. 

4.  To  make  perfect  copies. 
Assignment 

Make  one  perfect  page  of  each  of  the  first  five  in  the  first 
group,   p.  27,  of  Fritz-Eldridge,  writing  the  sentence  ten 
times.    This  assignment  may  vary  according  to  the  textbook. 
Preparation 

As  a  preliminary  dril  write  the  words  in  Lesson  9,  capitalizing 
the  first  letter  of  each  word. 
Presentation 

Review  keyboard  by  writing  the  alfabet  several  times.  If  a 
Victrola  can  be  used,  play  a  march  and  hav  the  students 
strike  one  key  to  each  count  of  the  music. 
Make  one  perfect  page  of  each  of  the  first  five  sentences  in  the 
first  group,  p.  27,  of  Fritz-Eldridge,  writing  the  sentence 
ten  times. 


